He dualism Is the doctrine that states that in a particular domain there are two essential categories or principles that are fundamentally different from each other. Some of the areas where dualism is observed are theological and philosophical. The term dualism comes from the Latin"duo"meaning two (Hart, 1996).
Theological dualism presents the great conflict between two coeternal, opposing and irreducible principles that explain everything that exists. These principles can be Gods or in general, good and evil. This form of dualism is present in different religions throughout history (Hawthorne, 2007).
Philosophical dualism uses two irreducible and heterogeneous principles to analyze the processes of knowledge, to explain the whole of reality or an aspect of it. In this the body and mind are presented as elements that are categorically separate and distinct from each other.
It also presents the idea that the mind is not part of the physical world where the body inhabits. This form of dualism has had several exponents throughout history (Encyclopedia P., 1998).
Dualism can be absolute or relative. In absolute or radical dualism the two fundamental principles exist for all eternity. While in relative or mitigated dualism, one of the principles may be based on or be a derivative of the other.
The doctrine of dualism contrasts with the doctrine of monism which shows that there is only one fundamental principle within a domain and the doctrine of pluralism which states that there are several fundamental principles.
Theological dualism
History
Throughout history one can appreciate theological dualism in various ancient cultures and religions.
One can observe an implicit dualism in the ancient Egyptian religion between the gods Seth and Osiris. Seth was associated with violence, disorder, infertility and the desert; While Osiris was associated with the fertility, life and waters of the Nile River.
This contrast is also seen in the Mesopotamian religion between the Apsu deities (the abyss) and Tiamat (the sea).
In ancient Greece, many of the dualistic ideas of the time are found in the dialogues of Plato , Such as the Timaeus, Phaedo, Gorgias, and Cratylus. In these writings Plato defines a mortal part and a divine part that are infused to the human being by the divinities.
Plato's central inspiration in which his cosmology, anthropology, and his doctrine of the soul were combined, was of a dualistic nature with two irreducible principles:"The idea"or form and the"chora"or the vessel in which the idea is introduced .
In ancient Persia, towards the sixth century BC, dualism is expressed more characteristically with the Zoroastrian religion. In their religious texts or Gathas the opposition of two spirits, the spirit of charity (Spenta Mainyu) and the destructive spirit (Angra Mainyu) is expressed, the charity being the substance of the divinity called Ahura Mazda.
In China, classical thinking that began with the teachings of the philosopher Confucius , By the fifth century BC, maintained the notion of a dynamic universe and therefore generally avoided the radical dualism that emerged in Persia and Europe.
For example, the concept of Yin and Yang is not considered radical dualism, since they complement each other, being both aspects of the same entity, the Dao.
In Judaism and Christianity there is no radical dualism in terms of God and Satan. Being a monotheistic religion, it indicates that there is only one God who is the undisputed creator of the universe and has control of everything.
Even when one considers the figure of Satan does not change the fact of this monotheism, since it does not participate in the creation of existence and is not coeternal together with God. (Stefon & Bianchi, 2016)
The Christian religion associates Plato's Forms with the concept of the soul and presents it as the substance of every human being. Meanwhile, the body is only a shadow or copy of these eternal phenomena.
For the Catholic theologian and philosopher Saint Thomas of Aquino (1225 to 1274 AD) the soul is the substance of the human being. But in a similar way to the Aristotle , Only through the manifestation of the soul within the human body can it be said that that being is a person (Robinson, 2003).
Common Traits of Dualist Doctrines
The dualistic doctrines present in their great majority common traits among them (Stefon & Bianchi, 2016).
These features include:
- The opposition between the sacred and the profane.
- The opposition between good and evil. That is considered dualism as long as the origin of evil is explained by the introduction of another principle independent of the first.
- The opposition between life and death or creation and destruction as metaphysical principles.
- Polytheistic features opposed to each other, such as: opposition of the terrestrial and celestial, opposition of man and woman, opposition of the diurnal and nocturnal.
Philosophical dualism
History
In the philosophical dualism the Mind and body , But throughout history several exponents have turned their attention to different aspects of the mind. Philosophical dualism has its origins in ancient Greece, where several of its earliest exponents can be identified.
For the philosopher Heraclitus , The origin of everything is fire, which is changing matter as it consumes and constantly destroys. In his doctrines he presented the conflict of opposites (heat and cold, day and night, beginning and end) which he called"war"and proposes as a metaphysical principle.
The philosopher Empedocles Presents the contrast between"love and discord". It explains the concept that there are"daimons"or souls, as divine beings who entered this world from a higher world and exist in the flesh (human, animal or vegetable bodies).
The mystical and numerical speculations of the Greek philosopher and professor Pythagoras present numerical oppositions around the 6th century BC. (Stefon & Bianchi, 2016).
The classical emphasis of dualism begins with Plato in his Phaedo dialogue, where he formulates his theory of Forms. Plato explains that true substances were not physical bodies, but eternal and immaterial Forms that allow us to understand the world and from which the objects or phenomena that are perceived are simple shadows or imperfect copies.
In the Phaedo Plato argues that the intellect is something immaterial because the Forms are immaterial and the intellect must be related to these Forms in order to understand the world around them. Plato proposes that the soul is trapped in the body and seeks to be free to exist in the reality of the Forms. (Plato, 1997)
On the other hand, the philosopher Aristotle did not believe in the Forms of Plato so he presents his own. Aristotelian forms are the properties and natures of things and exist within them.
Aristotle argues that the intellect must be immaterial since otherwise it could not assume all forms. For example, the case of the eyes, which by their physical nature can perceive light but not sound.
However, dualism was formulated more precisely by the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes In century XVII d.C. The more modern versions of dualism have their origins in their meditations. Descartes was a substance dualist and proposes that there are two types of substances, matter and mind.
Descartes was the first to formulate the mind-body problem in the way it exists today. Descartes identifies the mind with self-awareness and distinguishes it from the brain, which is the seat of intelligence.
Along with his famous"Cogito, ergo sum"(From Latin: I think, therefore I exist), Descartes develops the theory of mind as an immaterial substance that participates in activities such as thought and imagination. In contrast to the physical body, which Descartes proposes to be affected by the mind and vice versa.
The great uncertainty that Descartes and his contemporaries face within the mind-body problem is, as two things as different as the body and mind can interact with each other. Also, trying to discover through which medium or organ of the human body, is that the mind and body communicate or interact with each other. (Descartes, 1641)
The mind-body problem
The mind-body problem explores the relationship between mental properties and physical properties. Human beings have physical properties such as weight, shape, color; But also have properties that can not be attributed to any physical object, such as consciousness, thought, emotions And intentions.
Physical properties are observable and are generally the same for all people, but the same is not true of mental properties. While a person may realize when another experiences a sensation such as sadness, it is impossible to feel the same experience, which is happening to another person. (Encyclopedia M., 1998)
The mind-body problem raises the following questions:
- What are mental and physical states and how do they relate to each other?
- What is consciousness and how does it relate to body and mind?
- What is intentionality and how does it relate to body and mind?
- What is being and how does it relate to body and mind?
- What does it mean for the mind to inhabit a body?
- What does it mean for the body to be inhabited by the mind?
(Robinson, 2003)
Other philosophical currents that deal with the subject of the mind-body problem are: Behaviorism , Eliminative materialism, epiphenomenalism, functionalism, identity theory, intentionality, neutral monism, mental causation, and physicalism.
The dualistic view of the problem expresses that both the mental and the physical are real, and neither can be assimilated by the other.
In short, it is said that there exists a mind-body problem since both thought and consciousness seem to be very different from the things perceived in the physical world and there is no consensus on how the union of body and mind works in An individual (Feigl, 1958).
Types of dualism
There are different types of dualisms that are defined according to which are the principles that interact and what are their properties and behaviors.
The dualism of predicates is the current that proposes that there are two different types of predicates in language, psychological predicates and physical predicates.
Psychological or mental predicates are necessary to describe the world and are not reducible to physical predicates. For this not to be true, the physical descriptions of natural language must be able to describe psychological experiences on their own, which is not always possible. (Davidson, 1971)
The dualism of properties is the current that proposes that the mind is a group of independent properties that emerge from the brain but is not a substance in itself. Therefore, when matter is organized in a specific way, mental properties are created.
The dualism of substances (or Cartesian dualism) is the current that proposes that the mind is a substance that exists independently of the body or physical reality. The mind takes no place in space and the physical does not belong to the reality that occupies the mind.
Interactionism is the current that proposes that physical events and psychological events are influenced by each other. This can be observed in the human being when the experiences of the physical world influence their behavior. In this context, Descartes proposed that the interaction between the physical and the mental occurred in the Pineal gland Of the human brain. (Descartes, 1641)
Epiphenomenalism is the current that proposes that mental events are inert, bone, which do not result in any consequence in the physical realm. This doctrine was formulated by Thomas Huxley In the 19th century d. C.
Parallelism is the current that proposes that mental events only have mental effects and that physical events have only physical effects, although in some way or another it seems that mental and physical events are caused by one another. Gottfried Leibniz Was one of the proponents of this trend (Robinson, 2003).
References
- Aristotle. (1968). From Anima. (D. Hamlyn, Ed.) Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Davidson, D. (1971). Mental Events. (L. Foster, & W. Swanson, Edits.) London: Duckworth.
- Descartes, R. (1641). Meditation VI, in Meditations on the First Philosophy. (J. Cottingham, Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Encyclopedia, M. (July 20, 1998). Encyclopedia Britannica. Recovered on January 11, 2017
- Encyclopedia, P. (July 20, 1998). Encyclopedia Britannica. Recovered on January 11, 2017
- Feigl, H. (1958). Concepts, Theories and the Mind-Body Problem. (M. Scriven, & G. Maxwell, Edits.) Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press.
- Hart, W. (1996). A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind. (S. Guttenplan, Ed.) Oxford: Blackwell.
- Hawthorne, J. (2007). Persons: Human and Divine. (P. van Inwagen, & D. Zimmerman, Edits.) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Plate. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. (J. Cooper, Ed.) Indianapolis: Hackett.
- Robinson, H. (August 19, 2003). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Recovered on January 12, 2017.
- Stefon, M., & Bianchi, U. (April 27, 2016). Encyclopedia Britannica. Recovered on January 12, 2017.