He Stockholm syndrome Occurs when a person has unconsciously identified with his / her abuser / captor. It is a psychological state where The victim detained against his / her own will develops a relationship of complicity with the person who has kidnapped her.
Most of the victims who have been abducted speak with contempt, hatred or indifference of their captors.
In fact, a study of more than 1,200 hostages taken by the FBI showed that 92% of the victims did not develop Stockholm.
However, there is a part of them that shows a different reaction towards their captors.
Characteristics of Stockholm Syndrome
When a person has been deprived of freedom and held against his will, remaining in conditions of isolation to stimulate and in company Exclusive of their captors, for survival can develop an affective bond towards them.
It is a set of psychological mechanisms, which allow an affective bonding of dependence of the victims towards their captors, so as to That assume the ideas, motivations, beliefs or reasons used by the kidnappers to deprive them of freedom.
It should also be noted that the Stockholm Syndrome is a psychopathological phenomenon that lacks its own diagnostic entity.
Therefore, one aspect to be considered is that it does not deserve, according to the judgment of many experts, the denomination of"syndrome".
Never has this phenomenon been characterized as a clinical set of signs and symptoms under the same entity to be considered a category Psychopathology with differential diagnosis.
Therefore, this syndrome does not appear or has ever appeared in the main diagnostic systems used by professionals in clinical practice:
- He Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) Of the American Psychiatric Association.
- The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) Of the World Health Organization.
The manifestations of the syndrome of Stockholm can be more a reaction and a determined behavior to a concrete situation and not so much a Psychopathological process as such.
The syndrome presents signs and symptoms but nevertheless, they are not grouped under the same diagnostic set nor present an explanatory model and Descriptive, so that their explanations are isolated hypotheses.
This is probably because their nature is unknown and that, in addition, researchers and different authors have devoted little effort to Study and research on it.
Many of them even come to doubt their existence and consider that it is rather a"myth."
Also, many authors have an impact on their low incidence rate, and when they occur only during kidnappings or captivity, the possible number of cases Decreases.
Therefore, it is difficult to study these cases, which makes difficult their clinical observation during the whole process.
Most of the cases that are taken care of do so after being released (obviously) and treated by the psychiatrist and / or psychologist Specialist in clinical psychology and are usually diagnosed Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) .
In this sense, many researchers argue that Stockholm Syndrome can help explain the behaviors that have had survivors of Some dramatic situations like:
- Abused Women (Domestic Stockholm Syndrome)
- Children who are physically or emotionally abused or mistreated
- Victims of incest
- Prisoners of war
- Members of cults
- Situations of criminal abduction
- Prisoners in concentration camps
- Control and intimidation relationships
- Prostitutes
The psychological state that happens after situations of kidnapping where the victim ends up developing an affective state towards the captor, is therefore called "Stockholm syndrome".
It has also received other names like"Syndrome of identification of survival", happening when the victim perceives that to not have shown Aggression or not have killed her should be grateful to him.
History of Stockholm Syndrome
In August 1973, an attempt was made in the city of Stockholm to steal from a bank. Several criminals armed with machine guns They entered the bank.
A robber named Jan-Erik Olsson was introduced to the bank to commit a robbery. However, the police surrounded the building and prevented him from fleeing. It was Then when he took several bank employees hostage for several days (about 130 hours).
The hostages were three women and one man, who were tied with dynamite in a vault until they were rescued. During the Kidnapping had been threatened and came to fear for his life.
When they were released, in the interviews they showed that they were on the part of the kidnappers, coming to fear the agents who released them. They thought that even the captors were protecting them.
Some of the victims developed affective bonds with the kidnapper during the days that their captivity lasted, even arriving some to fall in love with he. They also criticized the Swedish Government for not understanding what had led the thieves to do that.
They were in solidarity with the ideals of the captor and the objectives that led him to do that, later one of them to participate in another Kidnapping that the captor organized.
Probably not the first case, but it is the first historical case that was taken as a model to name this phenomenon.
The Stockholm Syndrome was first named by Nils Bejerot (1921-1988), who was a professor of medicine specializing in research Addictive
He also served as a psychiatrist consultant for the police in Sweden in the bank robbery.
Symptoms of Stockholm Syndrome
Victims behave in a characteristic and unique way. It is an individual and idiosyncratic reaction that can not be generalized.
However, his action responds to a defense mechanism on the part of the victim, so he ends up identifying himself with his abductor.
The traumatic and stressful situation experienced places the victim in a passive-aggressive position in front of the captor, so that he acts defensively to From the survival instinct.
It is necessary to take into account that the fact of losing the freedom because another imposes it ends up positioning the victims in a situation of imbalance and instability.
They are placed in a situation of uncertainty that causes anguish , Anxiety and fear in the victim. He subjects them to his dependence and conditions his life in all the senses.
Since the only possible situations are to rebel or accept it and rebellion can bring unpleasant consequences, the least bad option is the one Can lead the victim to Stockholm Syndrome.
The reactions that are part of this syndrome are considered one of the multiple emotional responses that an individual can present as a result of Vulnerability and Defenselessness Produced during captivity.
It is an unusual response but must necessarily be known and understood, since it has often been misrepresented by calling it and considering it As a disease.
Upon being released, the inability to identify themselves as victims before what happened and the feelings of understanding towards the captor shows the dissociation Characteristic of this phenomenon.
They tend to be grateful to their captors, for having lived during the captivity, for not having behaved aggressively with them and finished Being nice and pleasant with them.
Not having behaved 'cruelly' with the victims and the isolation to which they have been subjected, makes them see the world through the eyes of Captor and can even share common interests after spending time together. The victim ends up developing an emotional dependency on him.
It is often something that worries excessively the families of individuals who have gone through a situation of captivity and many wonder if some Feelings of gratitude towards the captor are part of this symptomatology and the individual is"sick."
If during the captivity someone has had a gesture of help towards them they remember it especially because under those circumstances, the gestures Kindness is received with relief and gratitude.
Therefore, it is an unconscious defensive mechanism that has the victim to not be able to respond to the situation of aggression in which it is, Thus defending a situation that can not 'digest' and to avoid an emotional shock.
He begins to establish a bond with the aggressor and identifies with him, understands it, has sympathy and shows affection and pleasure.
It should be clarified that it is something that the victim feels and perceives and believes is a reasonable and reasonable way of thinking.
It is the people outside her who see irrational the feelings or attitudes she shows to understand and excuse the acts of the captors.
Other authors (such as Meluk) also point out that in some accounts of liberated victims, gratitude was shown towards the kidnappers since the Situation that made them live allowed them to grow as people.
It allowed them to change their personality, their value system, although they did not justify or defend the motivations that led the kidnappers to Take such actions.
It is important to emphasize that the cover-up that the victim can perform is not due to the fear of reprisals, it is something more typical of the sphere Affective, of thanks.
In short, although the experts do not agree on the characteristic features, most agree that there are some characteristics that are Central
1. The positive feelings of the victims towards their captors
2. The negative feelings of the victims towards authorities or the police
3. The situation should last at least a few days
4. There must be contact between victims and captors
5. The captors show some kindness or do not hurt the victims
In addition, people with Stockholm Syndrome have other symptoms, similar to people diagnosed with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder : problems Of sleep as insomnia , Difficulties of concentration , Increased alertness, sense of unreality, Anhedonia .
Causes of Stockholm syndrome
Different theorists and investigators have tried to shed light and explain what happens in these situations in which, paradoxically, a relationship occurs between a victim and his captor. It appeals to affective and emotional cues that happen in a traumatic situation.
In medical science the syndrome is the set of symptoms and signs observed that have an unknown origin, here is one of the great Differences with the disease: the lack of knowledge of the etiology.
In this sense, the victim's brain receives a warning and threat signal that begins to spread and to traverse the limbic system and the amygdala , Regulating the defense functions.
The victim maintains the instinct of preservation before the deprivation of freedom, the isolation stimulate and being subjected to the desires of a person Foreigner
In this way, the possibility of 'seducing' or manipulating his captor can give him the advantage of being dismissed as a potential object of torture, ill-treatment Or homicide.
Other authors consider that in the case of the victim, when treating the offender as an equal and not subordinate to him, through empathy And denying his Position, manages to convey sympathy, so that in the case of having to get rid of the victim, the captor feels sorry for doing so.
For example, authors like Dutton and Painter (1981) argue that the factors of power imbalance and good-bad intermittency are what generates in A battered woman developing a traumatic bond that unites her to the aggressor.
In this sense, the uncertainty associated with repeated and intermittent violence can be a key element in developing the link, but No way the only cause.
It is well known that under certain emotional states triggers can be produced as characteristic feelings or behaviors.
Some authors consider that there are people who are more vulnerable to developing it, especially the More insecure people And emotionally more weak.
In this case, as a consequence of the situation lived, the victim who has been kidnapped, from the lived fear is identified with his captor.
There are different situations where the kidnappers carry out actions where they deprive other individuals, the victims, and subject them to a Period of captivity, for example.
It is necessary to emphasize that the Stockholm Syndrome lacks models that describe or explain its aetiology and conformation from a perspective Psychopathological.
When the victim is released, he can present samples that show that he suffers from the syndrome as being highly identified with the captor, for example.
Among the few theories found, we can highlight the elements of identification proposed by the Graham group of the University of Cincinnati (1995), based on an evaluation scale of 49 items.
Around this evaluation, cognitive distortions and coping strategies are suggested. From this, symptoms of this syndrome are detected For example in young people whose sentimental partners commit abuses against them.
All this is framed within a vision where the situation leads the victim to present a"dissociative state"where he denies violent behavior And negative of the abductor developing an affective bond towards him.
However, it should be noted that although it may be valid for some processes involved in the situation, it is by no means a clear hypothesis and Explanatory on the origin and nature of the process.
Thus, tentatively, we can argue that the victim develops a cognitive mental model and an anchor to the context that allows him to overcome that Situation, recover their balance and be able to protect themselves against the situation they have experienced (their psychological integrity).
In this way, the victim produces a cognitive modification that serves to adapt.
In addition, to establish the bases of an explanatory etiological model, some conditions are established that are necessary so that Syndrome can appear Of Stockholm:
1. The situation that triggers it requires a Held hostage (It could exceptionally take place in small kidnapped groups).
2. There is a need for Isolation of stimuli , Where the victim is introduced in a minimum environment where the abductor is the emergency referent.
3. Corpus ideológico , Understood as values and cognitions covered by a concrete political, religious or social argument that underlies the action Carried out by the kidnappers.
The more elaborate the abductor is, the more likely it is that an influence will be exerted on the hostage and the Stockholm.
4. Let there be Contact between abductor and victim , So that the latter perceives the motivation of the abductor and can open the process by means of the Which is identified with it.
5. It depends on the Resources available to the victim , Since the syndrome will not develop if it has internal control referents well Seated or coping strategies or appropriate problem solving.
6. In general, if the Violence by the abductor , The onset of Stockholm Syndrome will be less likely.
7. The victim, on the other hand, must receive Initial expectations that there is risk For their life, which are progressively declining as it advances to A contact he perceives more secure with the abductor.
According to different experts, it is necessary that the victim does not feel attacked, violated or mistreated, because then develops a defensive barrier Which does not allow them to identify with the captors and accept their good part.
Also, under this framework a series of stages occur during the process. It starts from a situation of kidnapping and establishes a model by which There is a change or evolution of the psychological state of the victims.
It is necessary to take into account the individual characteristics of the different people, and therefore not all will react in the same way nor will they Affected by all reactions or in the same order, presenting it as an orientation to construct an explanatory hypothesis.
Therefore, the general process can be divided into functional phases that coincide, broadly, with the model of the General Adaptation Syndrome By Selye.
In addition, it could not be ruled out that at the base of the victim's behavior there is also a weak personality.
Therefore, due to the fear and the situation of threat that has lived during a prolonged time during the kidnapping, this does not allow him to confront it and it Does as described.
In addition, the victim could rationalize what happened by giving arguments to what happened and justifying the abductor, defending it, enhancing its qualities, Making assessments of social justice, etcetera.
In short, to detect and diagnose the Stockholm Syndrome, two conditions are necessary:
1. That the person has unconsciously internalized a high identification in the attitudes, behaviors and beliefs of the captors (almost as if Were their own).
2. The initial expressions of appreciation and appreciation towards the captors are extended in time, even when the person is already released and in Your daily routines and know that the captivity is over.
Evaluation and treatment of Stockholm Syndrome
The victims of the Stockholm Syndrome require psychological and psychiatric assistance in order to remember and rework the situation Consequences of that experience, as well as working with the different defense mechanisms that the person has put in place. practice.
It is necessary to consider how the memory works, that it is selective and that its tracks change with the passage of time.
Sometimes, after being the victim released after a period of time, you may find it difficult to separate from your captor.
It can take a long time for the person to recover from the aftermath of the situation.
Given that as we have discussed previously the Stockholm Syndrome is not a diagnostic category, we refer to a descriptive term and a Way of behaving in the face of a stressful and traumatic situation.
Many of the professionals dealing with this type of victims diagnose these patients of some disorders such as Acute Stress Disorder or Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when evaluated.
The treatment used is the same as that used for the treatment of PTSD, combining pharmacotherapy with psychotherapy.
Obviously, the treatment must be adapted to the characteristics of the victim. If this is insecure and low self-esteem, work will be done to improve Personal security, emotional dependence and work the reaction that presents and the beliefs and ideas that underlie it.
If the patient experiences symptoms of post-traumatic stress or depression , We must work with this symptomatology.
The recovery is good and the duration depends on different factors such as the time that was held against his will, his style of Coping, learning history or the nature of the situation experienced.
Finally, it should be noted that this phenomenon is quite interesting from the psychological point of view, so that the underlying behaviors To this"syndrome"should be studied and investigated in more detail by those who study victimology, to be able to shed a little more Light in everything that surrounds it.
In addition, from the social point of view is also important because of the collateral damage it can bring to society. The fact of pretending to forget, not Recognizing the aggressors (voice, clothing, physiognomy...) can make research difficult.
References
- Auerbach, S., Kiesler, D., Strentz, T., Schmidt, J., Devany Serio, C. (1994). Interpersonal impacts and adjustment to the stress of simulated captivity: an empirical test of the Stockholm Syndrome. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13 (2), 207-221.
- Ballús, C. (2002). About the Stockholm syndrome. Clinical Medicine , 119 (5).
- Carver, J. M. Love and Stockholm syndrome: the mystery of loving an abuser. Excerpted from: cepvi.com.
- Domen, M. L. (2005). An"incomprehensible"link between its protagonists: The Stockholm Syndrome. Encrucijadas, 33, University of Buenos Aires.
- Graham, D. et al. (nineteen ninety five). A Scale for Identifying"Stockholm Syndrome". Reactions in Young Dating Women: Factor Structure, Reliability and Validity. Violence and Victims, 10 (1).
- Montero, A. The Stockholm Household Syndrome in Abused Women. Spanish Society of Psychology of Violence.
- Montero Gómez, A. (1999). Psychopathology of the Stockholm Syndrome: Essay on an etiological model. Science Police, 51.
- Muñoz Endre, J. (2008). Feminicide. Journal Policial Studies, 3.
- Parker, M. (2006). Stockholm Syndrome. Management Learning, 37 (1), 39-41.
- Quiñones Urquiza, M. L. Criminological considerations on the Stockholm syndrome.