The Bourbon reforms Were changes introduced in the mid-eighteenth century by the Bourbons, which drastically altered the relationship between the Spanish crown and its American colonies.
The period between 1700 and 1810 is a distinctive phase in the history of Spain and its empire, delimited by two main political conjunctures. The opening crisis was originated by the accession of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish rule in 1700, to then end with the crisis caused by the collapse of the dynasty in 1810.
It was a period in which the Bourbon monarchy sought to rebuild Spain's control over its empire, both politically and economically.
In fact, it is said that the resurgence of Spanish imperialism became so powerful in the late eighteenth century that it was a true second conquest of America.
What were the Bourbon reforms? Historical Context
In the last years of century XVII, during the twilight of the monarchy of Habsburg under the sickly one Carlos II (1665-1700), Spain remained reluctant to cultural exchange with the rest of Europe.
At the same time, Europe was opening up to new worlds, both geographically and intellectually. Spain still maintained its empire, but it had neglected the American colonies allowing to assume key positions of colonial government to the Native Americans.
In the intellectual field, Spaniards who dared to admit the validity of new scientific theories and to share the ideas of heretics as Galileo And Descartes ran the risk of being silenced by the Inquisition.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century and with the victory of the dynasty of the Bourbons in the War of Spanish Succession (1700-1714), Spain was submerged in a political and cultural crisis due to the forms of government adopted by the predecessor reign.
It is at this moment, in which Absolutism became the suggested route to the revival and resurgence of a new nation, making possible a progressive transformation towards a more French or Gallican style of government of totalitarian control.
At the beginning of century XVIII the power was continuously disputed and no institution or group - including the young Bourbon dynasty - had complete dominion over the Spanish nation. As the events of the century unfolded, it was the institution of the Bourbon state that most successful established in the control of power.
The work of state ministers for decades had been designed to take every opportunity to improve the institutional apparatus of the Bourbon state so that reforms could be effectively encouraged and implemented.
Thus, the regalist reform was gradually orchestrated and became dominant over any other movement since there was no institutional mechanism that could cope with such power.
Causes and consequences of major reforms
The overall objectives of the Bourbon reforms in the Americas were to strengthen the domination and control of the Spanish crown in its American possessions and thus energize the empire.
These objectives would be achieved by centralizing state power through a series of administrative reforms that sought to increase production and trade within the American colonies and thereby increase revenues from the Spanish treasury.
Ironically, these changes in law and politics, destined to place the American colonies under the control of Spain, would have the opposite effect: to develop and intensify the sense of American nationalism and lay the basis for the wars of independence in the first Quarter of the nineteenth century.
The reforms instituted can be divided by the Bourbon monarchs: Felipe V, Fernando VI, Carlos III and Carlos IV in the following categories: economic, political and administrative, military and religious. The most intensive period of reform began in the 1760s under Charles III.
In order to understand the origins and impact of these reforms, it is necessary to situate them in the context of the great events of the eighteenth century, especially the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years' War or the French Revolution to name a few conflicts.
Economic reforms
Some of the main objectives of the Bourbon reforms were to increase the production of primary export goods in the colonies, to promote inter-colonial trade and also to Spain.
From 1717, the Crown also created Monopolies Governmental organizations on the production and trade of tobacco to prevent colonies from producing manufactured goods that competed with goods imported from Spain.
The main concern of the Crown was mining, which provided much of the revenue of the Spanish treasury. In an effort to stimulate the production of silver, in 1736 the Crown reduced the mining tax by half.
He also developed technical schools to train miners, financed credit banks, and awarded nobles titles to successful mine owners. Similar measures were taken to increase gold production, especially in New Granada, the main source of this valuable ore for the Crown.
Manufacturing restrictions seriously affected colonial business, with the exception of the export-oriented mining, livestock, and agriculture sectors.
Nevertheless, the commercialization of these items was strictly regulated, precluding negotiations with the British kingdom, and in this way to ensure that all colonial trade was directed solely to Spain.
A long series of laws and decrees served to regulate international trade as the legal code published in 1778,"Royal Regulations and Tariffs for Free Trade between Spain and the Indies."
Many elite native settlers attempted to curb these and other related restrictions, fueling the need for independence from the Spanish crown. However, some of these measures actually served to increase production in mining and agriculture in general, as they meant more costly production and labor regimes for settlers and slaves.
In general, Bourbon economic reforms achieved the goal of increasing production, trade, and real incomes, while undermining the sense of loyalty and loyalty of the elite and subordinates Creoles Before the Crown.
Political and Administrative Reforms
Among the main reforms were the establishment of two new viceroyalties in addition to that of Peru: the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada (1717-1723 / Restored in 1739) and the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata (1776-1814), the aim was to increase Control over the American colonies.
After a series of general inspections of all American colonies made from 1765 to 1771, the crown decided to weaken the power of the natives. To this end, it increased the number of participants in administrative offices and eliminated the possibility of affiliation of criollos.
The most important administrative reform came in the 1760s with the creation of a new layer of bureaucracy called the intendancy, a kind of regional government that was mainly in charge of controlling the collection of taxes, directing the troops and boosting the regional economy.
The quartermaster system, which threatened the authority of viceroys and other high officials, largely failed to centralize state control, mainly as a result of the institutional inertia that had developed over the past two centuries and the resistance of the Administrators to renounce their authority.
Because the changes in political and administrative systems were overwhelmingly biased in favor of Spanish Spaniards and to the detriment of Creole Spaniards, the general feeling of disenchantment with the royal authority of the native population increased.
Military Reforms
After the British capture of Manila and Havana in 1762 (both territories returned to Spanish control in the Treaty of Paris of 1763), the Spanish Crown tried to improve its military power throughout the empire.
Efforts to strengthen military armies were rooted in the growing spectrum of violence that was evident in the large number of revolts, rebellions, riots and popular protests in the United States.
The Crown's response to these crises was to increase the number of soldiers under arms and the number of commissioned officers, who were usually career professionals and peninsular Spaniards.
However, most of the army's forces of action were American Creoles. From 1740 to 1769, the natives accounted for about a third of the officers' corps. In 1810 the proportion was approaching two-thirds.
In general, military reforms failed to strengthen the ties between Spain and the American colonies, since the large body of Creole officials ended up playing a significant role in setting the stage for the later pro-independence revolution in Latin America.
Religious Reforms
The alliance and the mixture of the crown and the church is one of the main themes of Spanish American colonial history. In 1753, as part of the larger effort to reaffirm royal supremacy, the Crown negotiated a concordat with Rome stipulating a greater royal authority in the nomination and appointment of ecclesiastical authorities.
The most important Bourbon reform in the religious sphere was the expulsion of the Jesuits from all Spanish America (and Spain) in 1767.
By the 1760s, the Jesuit order had become one of the colony's most powerful institutions, not only in religious settings, but also in politics and education because of its extensive system of schools and colleges.
The expulsion of some 2200 Jesuits from Spanish America reverberated throughout the empire in 1767, since many Creoles had been educated in Jesuit colleges or were sympathetic to the progressive perspective of the order, finding expulsion a deeply disturbing act.
In subsequent decades, the crown auctioned off the properties accumulated by the Jesuits and appropriated this revenue improperly. The expulsion of the Jesuits was a crucial trigger of disenchantment among many elite Creoles, leading a new quarrel between the Crown and those who are in favor of the independence movements.
The Imperial Crisis and the Collapse of the Bourbon Dynasty
All these Bourbon reforms had multiple and contradictory effects, which in some cases brought the colonies closer to Spain and at other levels deepened the divisions.
In the eighteenth century some philosophies of government worldwide aimed at controlling and interventionist models, which largely gave rise to the reforms implemented by the Spanish crown.
However, these actions as a whole failed to achieve the desired results as the grievances committed by the Spanish royalty aroused the resentment and anger of many elite Native Americans.
The growing nationalist sentiment in both Europe and America facilitated the formation of autonomous identities and laid the basis for the wars of independence.
The Spanish imperial crisis was one of the most important and evident episodes that originated the American-American independence movements in the early nineteenth century. The problems began throughout the Spanish empire in 1808.
The imperial crisis refers to a constitutional crisis that came as a result of the collapse of the Spanish government structure and the abdication of two Spanish monarchs who were replaced by Napoleon's brother Joseph.
In many ways, external forces from France awakened Lac Crisis and unleashed the Peninsular War (1808-1814). A series of abdications of the Spanish kings, known as the abdications of Bayonne, left the Spanish government weak, fragmented and vulnerable to Napoleon.
A popular uprising in March 1808 in Spain forced King Charles IV to abdicate the throne to his son Ferdinand VII.
In less than two months, Napoleon forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate the throne. Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte, replaced Fernando VII as King of Spain. This provoked a constitutional crisis in Spain, since the town was not sure of who to obey as the legitimate ruler of Spain.
José Bonaparte
After Bonaparte conquered the French throne, it ordered its troops to occupy substantial portions of the Spanish territory. However, the Spanish people refused to accept the legitimacy of French authority.
Throughout Spain a series of small guerrillas rose to resist the French. Politically, many Spanish leaders resisted the French and established assemblies and administrations that believed they were in a position to lead the kingdom in the king's absence.
The appointment of Joseph Bonaparte by Napoleon as King of Spain and the resulting reaction of the Spanish people was the spark that triggered the Peninsular War between Spain, Portugal and Great Britain.
The Imperial Crisis was one of the main factors that led to the American-American independence movements. The turmoil and chaos that resulted from the Peninsular War and the civil wars that broke out in the New World provided Hispanic-American creoles with the opportunity to gain control over colonial governments.
References
- 1707-1810 - Bourbon Reforms. Retrieved from: globalsecurity.org.
- Bourbon Reforms in Latin America. Retrieved from: historyworldsome.blogspot.com.
- History of Latin America. Retrieved from: kids.britannica.com.
- McFarlane, A. (1993). Colombia before Independence. Economy, Society and Politics Bourbon Rule. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- Smith, A. (2010). Bourbon Regalism and the Importation of Gallicanism: The Political Path for State Religion in Eighteenth-Century Spain. Yearbook of Church History, Vol. 19.